EIDs also develop as a result of antimicrobial resis- use of methicillin. In the s, methicillin-resistant S. An increasing number called MRSA, emerged and became endemic in many hospi- of incidents in recent years highlights the extent of the problem. In the late s, H1N1 influenza flu , also known as swine flu, is a type of S. H1N1 vancomycin-intermediate S. In June In , an infection caused by vancomycin-resistant S.
Avian influenza vi- Multidrug-resistant TB is caused by bacteria that are resistant ruses occur in birds worldwide. Certain wild birds, particularly to at least the antibiotics isoniazid and rifampicin, the most waterfowl, do not get sick but carry the virus in their intestines effective drugs against tuberculosis.
Most often, the The antibacterial substances added to various household wild birds spread influenza to domesticated birds, in which the cleaning products are similar to antibiotics in many ways. When used correctly, they inhibit bacterial growth.
However, Influenza A viruses are found in many different animals, wiping every household surface with these antibacterial agents including ducks, chickens, pigs, whales, horses, and seals. Nor- creates an environment in which the resistant bacteria survive. However, influenza A viruses normally seen in one species and hands—for example, when a family member comes home sometimes can cross over and cause illness in another species, from a hospital and is still vulnerable to infection—you may and all subtypes of influenza A virus can infect pigs.
Although encounter mainly resistant bacteria. Routine housecleaning and handwashing are necessary, but because it helps produce certain vitamins and breaks down standard soaps and detergents without added antibacterials otherwise undigestible foodstuffs see Chapter However, a are fine for these tasks. In addition, quickly evaporating chemi- strain called E.
This strain was first recognized in peroxide, remove potentially pathogenic bacteria but do not and since then has emerged as a public health problem. It is leave residues that encourage the growth of resistant bacteria.
In , some people in Japan became ill, and 7 died, as a result of infection by E. The recent outbreaks of E. Concerned about what his patient is telling him, testing for bacteria in food.
In the emergency department, a reported on the front pages of major newspapers. Afterward How does antibiotic resistance develop? A few days later, health care workers in the hos- 2 17 19 20 21 pital where he was staying developed similar symptoms. The epidemic was controlled when nosed in the West Nile region of Uganda in In the microbiologists instituted training on the use of protective virus made its first North American appearance in humans equipment and educational measures in the community.
Close in New York City. In , West Nile virus infected over personal contact with infectious blood or other body fluids or people in 43 states. West Nile virus is now established in non- tissue see Chapter 23 leads to human-to-human transmission. The virus, which is carried by birds, Microbiologists first isolated Ebola viruses from humans is transmitted between birds—and to horses and humans—by during earlier outbreaks in DROC in The virus is named mosquitoes.
In , an Ebola virus outbreak States in an infected traveler or in migratory birds. In and , outbreaks In , countries worldwide were refusing to import beef among monkeys imported into the United States from the from the United Kingdom, where hundreds of thousands of cattle Philippines were caused by another Ebola virus but were not born after had to be killed because of an epidemic of bovine associated with human disease.
BSE first came to the attention of microbiolo- fever virus, are rare. The first cases were laboratory workers in gists in as one of a handful of diseases caused by an infectious Europe who handled African green monkeys from Uganda.
In , an the disease. Cattle are herbivores planteaters , but adding protein outbreak killed people. Microbiologists have been studying to their feed improves their growth and health. In the presence of HIV, and it is now quite unlikely that the virus the United States, transmission has occurred via drinking water, can be spread by this means.
Over 50, Americans become to public attention in with reports from Los Angeles that infected and 18, die each year. As of , health officials a few young homosexual men had died of a previously rare type estimated that 1. Soon and that new infections occur every day. Similar increases in such rare diseases were annually in the United States.
The majority of individuals with found among hemophiliacs and intravenous drug users. AIDS are in the sexually active age group. Because heterosexual Researchers quickly discovered that the cause of AIDS was partners of AIDS sufferers are at high risk of infection, public health a previously unknown virus see Figure 1. In , HIV diagnoses began increasing among T cells, one type of white blood cell important to immune sys- women and minorities.
Among the AIDS cases reported in , tem defenses. So far, the disease has been inevita- apply microbiological techniques to help them learn more about bly fatal once symptoms develop. Public health taminated needles, from infected mothers to their newborns officials have also focused on prevention through education.
Since threats, but it is not the first serious epidemic of a sexually transmitted disease. Syphilis was also once a fatal epidemic disease.
As recently as , syphilis caused an estimated 14, deaths per year in the United States. With few drugs Clinical Case available for treatment and no vaccines to prevent it, efforts to Mutations develop randomly in bacteria: some mutations control the disease focused mainly on altering sexual behav- are lethal, some have no effect, and some may be ior and on the use of condoms. The eventual development of beneficial. Once these mutations develop, the offspring of drugs to treat syphilis contributed significantly to preventing the mutated parent cells also carry the same mutation.
According to the Centers for Dis- Because they have an advantage in the presence of ease Control and Prevention CDC , reported cases of syphilis the antibiotic, bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics dropped from a record high of , in to an all-time soon outnumber those that are susceptible to antibiotic low of cases in Since then, however, the number of therapy.
The widespread use of antibiotics selectively cases has been increasing. Eventually, almost the fight against syphilis and smallpox, they will help scientists discover entire population of bacteria is resistant to the antibiotic. Undoubtedly there will be new diseases. Infectious diseases may reemerge because of antibiotic resis- What can the emergency department physician tell tance see the box in Chapter 26 on page and through the Andrea about MRSA?
See the box in Chapter 23 2 17 19 20 21 on page The local health department sends tozoa, and prions—types of microorganisms. This book introduces someone to her family home to swab for the bacteria there. After speaking with the family, the the microbes that cause such diseases as AIDS and diarrhea—and representative from the health department, knowing that diseases that have yet to be discovered.
You will also learn how the clusters of CA-MRSA infections have been seen among body responds to microbial infection and how certain drugs combat athletes suggests swabbing the mats used by the gymnasts microbial diseases. The cultures come roles that microbes play in the world around us. Study Outline 4. The three major basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus, coccus, and spiral. Test your understanding with quizzes, microbe review, and a chapter 6. Bacteria can use a wide range of chemical substances for their post-test at www.
Living things too small to be seen with the unaided eye are called 8. Archaea include methanogens, extreme halophiles, and extreme microorganisms. Fungi mushrooms, molds, and yeasts have eukaryotic cells cells balance.
Most fungi are multicellular. Some microorganisms live in humans and other animals and are Fungi obtain nutrients by absorbing organic material from their needed to maintain good health. Some microorganisms are used to produce foods and chemicals. Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotes. Some microorganisms cause disease. Protozoa obtain nourishment by absorption or ingestion through specialized structures. Naming and Classifying Algae produce oxygen and carbohydrates that are used by other organisms.
In a nomenclature system designed by Carolus Linnaeus , each living organism is assigned two names. Viruses are noncellular entities that are parasites of cells. The two names consist of a genus and a specific epithet, both of An envelope may surround the coat. Bacteria are unicellular organisms. Because they have no nucleus, The microscopic stages in the life cycle of helminths are identified the cells are described as prokaryotic.
Two types of chemotherapeutic agents are synthetic drugs All organisms are classified into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Paul Ehrlich introduced an arsenic-containing chemical called salvarsan to treat syphilis Alexander Fleming observed that the Penicillium fungus inhibited 1. He named the active ingredient he introduced the term cell Penicillin has been used clinically as an antibiotic since the s. Researchers are tackling the problem of drug-resistant microbes.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, using a simple microscope, was the first to observe microorganisms Until the mids, many people believed in spontaneous generation, worms. Microbiologists are using genomics, the study of all of an 5. The study of AIDS, analysis of the action of interferons, and the 6. John Needham claimed that microorganisms could arise development of new vaccines are among the current research spontaneously from heated nutrient broth The development of recombinant DNA technology has helped 8.
Rudolf Virchow introduced the concept of biogenesis: living cells advance all areas of microbiology. Microorganisms degrade dead plants and animals and Bacteria are used to decompose organic matter in sewage.
Bioremediation processes use bacteria to clean up toxic wastes. The science of microbiology advanced rapidly between and Bacteria that cause diseases in insects are being used as biological Pasteur found that yeasts ferment sugars to alcohol and that controls of insect pests.
Biological controls are specific for the pest bacteria can oxidize the alcohol to acetic acid. A heating process called pasteurization is used to kill bacteria in 5. Using microbes to make products such as foods and chemicals is some alcoholic beverages and milk. Agostino Bassi and Pasteur showed a causal 6. Using recombinant DNA, bacteria can produce important relationship between microorganisms and disease. Joseph Lister introduced the use of a disinfectant to clean surgical 7. In gene therapy, viruses are used to carry replacements for wounds in order to control infections in humans s.
Robert Koch proved that microorganisms cause disease. He used a 8. Everyone has microorganisms in and on the body; these make up In , Edward Jenner demonstrated that inoculation with the normal microbiota, or flora. The disease-producing properties of a species of microbe and the Bacterial communities that form slimy layers on surfaces are called organisms or killed pathogens, from isolated components of biofilms. An infectious disease is one in which pathogens invade a susceptible host.
The Birth of Modern Chemotherapy: 5. Chemotherapy is the chemical treatment of a disease. Fleming from one bacterium to another. How did the idea of spontaneous generation come about? Koch b. Lancefield name them c. Lister f. Pasteur disease 3. Stanley Virchow Weizmann Biotechnology Immunology Microbial genetics Mycology 6. Studies the fungus Candida albicans names are chosen.
It is possible to purchase the following microorganisms in a retail 4. Match the microorganisms in column A to their descriptions in store. Provide a reason for buying each. Bacillus thuringiensis Column A Column B b. Saccharomyces 8. Archaea 1. Not composed of cells experiment. Algae 2. Bacteria 3. Fungi 4. Helminths 5. Protozoa cell wall. Viruses 6. Multicellular animals 7. Prokaryote without peptidoglycan cell wall. Match the people in column A to their contribution toward the advancement of microbiology, in column B.
Column A Column B. Multiple Choice 9. Which of the following is a scientific name? Which of the following statements is true? Mycobacterium tuberculosis a. All life requires air. Tubercle bacillus b. Only disease-causing organisms require air.
Which of the following is not a characteristic of bacteria? Some microbes do not require air. Pasteur kept air out of his biogenesis experiments. Lavoisier was mistaken. Which of the following statements about E. The animal shows disease symptoms when c. A disease-causing strain of E. Critical Thinking 4. Recombinant DNA is 1. How did the theory of biogenesis lead the way for the germ theory a.
DNA in bacteria. Even though the germ theory of disease was not demonstrated c. Find at least three supermarket products made by microorganisms. Hint: The label will state the scientific name of the organism or 5. Which of the following statements is the best definition of include the word culture, fermented, or brewed. People once believed all microbial diseases would be controlled by a. Nonliving matter gives rise to living organisms. Name one emerging infectious disease.
Living cells can only arise from preexisting cells. List three reasons why we are identifying new diseases now.
A vital force is necessary for life. Air is necessary for living organisms. Microorganisms can be generated from nonliving matter. Clinical Applications 6. Which of the following is a beneficial activity of microorganisms? The prevalence of arthritis in the United States is 1 in , a. Some microorganisms are used as food for humans. However, 1 in 10 children in Lyme, Connecticut, b. Some microorganisms use carbon dioxide. Allen c. Some microorganisms provide nitrogen for plant growth.
Steere, a rheumatologist at Yale University, investigated the cases d. Some microorganisms are used in sewage treatment processes. Steere concluded that this was a new 7. It has been said that bacteria are essential for the existence of infectious disease and did not have an environmental, genetic, or life on Earth. Which of the following is the essential function immunologic cause. What was the factor that caused Steere to reach his conclusion?
What is the disease? Why was the disease more prevalent between June and c. Which of the following is an example of bioremediation? How was Lister influenced by d. W e can see a tree rot and smell milk going sour, but we might not realize what is happening on a microscopic level. In both cases, microbes are conducting chemical operations. The tree rots when microorganisms decompose the wood. Milk turns sour from the production of lactic acid by bacteria.
Most of the activities of microorganisms are the result of a series of chemical reactions. Visualize microbiology and check your Like all organisms, microorganisms use nutrients to make chemical building understanding with a pre-test at blocks for growth and other functions essential to life. For most microorganisms, www.
The chemistry of microbes is one of the most important concerns of microbiologists. The Bacillus anthracis bacteria in the photograph make a capsule that is not readily digested by animal cells. As discussed in the Clinical Case, these bacteria can grow in mammals by avoiding host defenses.
Researchers are investigating ways to identify unique chemicals made by B. To understand the changes that occur in microorganisms and the changes microbes make in the world around us, we need to know how molecules are formed and how they interact.
The Structure of Atoms Electron shells. Nucleus Proton p 0 Neutron n All matter—whether air, rock, or a living organism—is made up of small units called atoms.
An atom is the smallest component of Electron e— a pure substance that exhibits physical and chemical properties of that substance; an atom cannot be subdivided into smaller sub- stances without losing its properties. Atoms interact with each other Figure 2. In this simplified diagram of in certain combinations to form molecules. Living cells are made a carbon atom, note the central location of the nucleus. The nucleus up of molecules, some of which are very complex.
The science of the contains six neutrons and six protons, although not all the protons are interaction between atoms and molecules is called chemistry. The six electrons move about the nucleus in regions called electron shells, shown here as circles. Atoms are the smallest units of matter that enter into chemical reactions. Every atom has a centrally located nucleus Q What is the atomic number of this atom? The nuclei of repel each other. Neutrons and protons have approximately the most atoms are stable—that is, they do not change spontane- same weight, which is about times that of an electron.
The ously—and nuclei do not participate in chemical reactions. Because the total protons and uncharged neutral particles called neutrons. A charge the electrons, each atom is electrically neutral. Atoms are often listed by their atomic number, the number of protons in the nucleus.
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is its approximate atomic weight. Clinical Case: Drumming Up Dust Jonathan, a year-old drummer, is doing his best to Chemical Elements ignore the cold sweat that is breaking out all over his body.
He and his bandmates are performing in a local All atoms with the same number of protons behave the same way Philadelphia nightclub, and they are just about finished chemically and are classified as the same chemical element. Each with the second set of the evening. For feeling weak and short of breath for the last 3 days or example, the symbol for the element hydrogen is H, and the sym- so.
Jonathan makes it to the end of the song, but the bol for carbon is C. The symbol for sodium is Na—the first two noise from the clapping and cheering audience seems to letters of its Latin name, natrium—to distinguish it from nitro- come from far away.
He stands up to bow and collapses. There are 92 naturally occurring ele- Jonathan is admitted to a local emergency department ments. However, only about 26 elements are commonly found in with a mild fever and severe shaking. He is able to tell living things. Table 2. The attending physician orders Most elements have several isotopes—atoms with different a chest X-ray exam and sputum culture.
Jonathan is numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. All isotopes of an element diagnosed with bilateral pneumonia caused by Bacillus have the same number of protons in their nuclei, but their atomic anthracis.
The attending physician is astonished by this weights differ because of the difference in the number of neu- diagnosis. For example, in a natural sample of oxygen, all the atoms contain eight protons. However, Therefore, the three isotopes composing a 26 43 44 48 natural sample of oxygen have atomic weights of 16, 17, and 18, although all will have the atomic number 8. Such an atom reacts with other Atomic Approximate atoms, and this reaction depends, in part, on the degree to Element Symbol Number Atomic Weight which the outer energy levels are filled.
Notice the number of Hydrogen H 1 1 electrons in the outer energy levels of the atoms in Table 2. We will see later how the number correlates with the chemical Carbon C 6 12 reactivity of the elements. What is the atomic number of each Sodium Na 11 23 carbon atom? The atomic weight? Potassium K 19 39 Define ionic bond, covalent bond, hydrogen bond, molecular weight, and mole.
Calcium Ca 20 40 When the outermost energy level of an atom is not completely filled Iron Fe 26 56 by electrons, you can think of it as having either unfilled spaces or Iodine I 53 extra electrons in that energy level, depending on whether it is easier for the atom to gain or lose electrons. The most symbol. Atomic weights are written as a superscript above the chemically stable configuration for any atom is to have its outermost atomic number.
Thus, natural oxygen isotopes are represented shell filled. Therefore, for these two atoms to attain that state, oxygen as O, O, and O. Isotopes of certain elements are extremely must gain two electrons, and magnesium must lose two electrons. The valence, or combining capacity, of an atom is the number In an atom, electrons are arranged in electron shells, which are of extra or missing electrons in its outermost electron shell.
For regions corresponding to different energy levels. The arrange- example, hydrogen has a valence of 1 one unfilled space, or one ment is called an electronic configuration. Shells are layered extra electron , oxygen has a valence of 2 two unfilled spaces , outward from the nucleus, and each shell can hold a characteristic carbon has a valence of 4 four unfilled spaces, or four extra elec- maximum number of electrons—two electrons in the innermost trons , and magnesium has a valence of 2 two extra electrons.
The fourth, fifth, and sixth electron shells can each which are made up of atoms of one or more elements. A mol- accommodate 18 electrons, although there are some exceptions to ecule that contains at least two different kinds of atoms, such as this generalization.
In H2O, the for atoms of some elements found in living organisms. An atom can give up, accept, or share elec- oxygen. Molecules hold together because the valence electrons trons with other atoms to fill this shell. The chemical properties of the combining atoms form attractive forces, called chemical of atoms are largely a function of the number of electrons in the bonds, between the atomic nuclei.
Therefore, valence may also outermost electron shell. When its outer shell is filled, the atom be viewed as the bonding capacity of an element.
Because en- is chemically stable, or inert: it does not tend to react with other ergy is required for chemical bond formation, each chemical atoms. Helium atomic number 2 and neon atomic number 10 bond possesses a certain amount of potential chemical energy. Magnesium 2 8 2 Mg 2 6 2. Phosphorus 2 8 5 P 5 3 5. A chlorine atom Cl accepts one electron from an electron donor to become a chloride ion Cl—. Na Cl Na Cl. NaCl b The sodium and chloride ions are attracted because of their opposite charges and are held together by an ionic bond to form a molecule of sodium chloride.
Chlorine Cl has a total of gaining or losing electrons from their outer electron shell, or by 17 electrons, seven of them in the outer electron shell. Because sharing outer electrons. When atoms have gained or lost outer this outer shell can hold eight electrons, chlorine tends to pick up electrons, the chemical bond is called an ionic bond. When an electron that has been lost by another atom; it is an electron outer electrons are shared, the bond is called a covalent bond.
By accepting an electron, chlorine totals Although we will discuss ionic and covalent bonds separately, 18 electrons. However, it still has only 17 protons in its nucleus. The attraction, an ionic bond, holds the two atoms together, and a molecule is formed Figure 2. Ionic Bonds The formation of this molecule, called sodium chloride NaCl Atoms are electrically neutral when the number of positive or table salt, is a common example of ionic bonding. Thus, an charges protons equals the number of negative charges elec- ionic bond is an attraction between ions of opposite charge trons.
But when an isolated atom gains or loses electrons, this that holds them together to form a stable molecule. Put another balance is upset. If the atom gains electrons, it acquires an over- way, an ionic bond is an attraction between atoms in which one all negative charge; if the atom loses electrons, it acquires an atom loses electrons and another atom gains electrons. Strong overall positive charge. But the weaker Consider the following examples. Sodium Na has 11 protons ionic bonds formed in aqueous water solutions are important and 11 electrons, with one electron in its outer electron shell.
So- in biochemical reactions in microbes and other organisms. For dium tends to lose the single outer electron; it is an electron donor example, weaker ionic bonds assume a role in certain antigen— Figure 2. This positively charged sodium atom is called eign substances antigens to combat infection. Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule a A single covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms.
Hydrogen atoms Methane molecule b Single covalent bonds between four hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, forming a methane molecule. Figure 2. On the right are simpler ways to represent molecules. In structural formulas, each covalent bond is written as a straight line between the symbols for two atoms. In molecular formulas, the number of atoms in each molecule is noted by subscripts. Q What is a covalent bond? In general, an atom whose outer electron shell is less than Methane CH4 is an example of covalent bonding between half-filled will lose electrons and form positively charged ions, atoms of different elements Figure 2.
The outer electron shell called cations. Ex- four hydrogen electrons to complete its outer shell, and each hy- amples are the iodide ion I- , chloride ion Cl- , and sulfide drogen atom completes its pair by sharing one electron from the ion S Each outer electron of the carbon atom orbits both the carbon nucleus and a hydrogen nucleus.
Each hydrogen elec- Covalent Bonds tron orbits both its own nucleus and the carbon nucleus. A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by two atoms shar- Elements such as hydrogen and carbon, whose outer electron ing one or more pairs of electrons.
Covalent bonds are stronger shells are half-filled, form covalent bonds quite easily. In fact, in and far more common in organisms than are true ionic bonds. In living organisms, carbon almost always forms covalent bonds; the hydrogen molecule, H2, two hydrogen atoms share a pair of it almost never becomes an ion. Remember: Covalent bonds are electrons. Each hydrogen atom has its own electron plus one elec- formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. Ionic bonds tron from the other atom Figure 2.
The shared pair of elec- are formed by attraction between atoms that have lost or gained trons actually orbits the nuclei of both atoms. Therefore, the outer electrons and are therefore positively or negatively charged. Atoms that share only one pair of electrons form a single covalent bond. For simplicity, Hydrogen Bonds a single covalent bond is expressed as a single line between the Another chemical bond of special importance to all organisms atoms H i H.
Such bonds are weak and do not atoms share three pairs of electrons. However, they do serve as bridges The principles of covalent bonding that apply to atoms of between different molecules or between various portions of the the same element also apply to atoms of different elements.
Covalent A bond formed by two atoms that share one Figure 2. Covalent bonds the electrons of the hydrogen atoms are strongly attracted to the are the most common type of chemical oxygen atom. Therefore, the part of the water molecule containing the bond in organisms and are responsible for oxygen atom has a slightly negative charge, and the part containing holding together the atoms of most hydrogen atoms has a slightly positive charge.
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Contents hide. Author: Gerard J. Tortora, Berdell R. Funke, Christine L. Pages: Edition: 13th. Publication: Pearson. About the Authors: The thirteenth edition has retained the features that havemade this book so popular:.
Huhuhu Fafafa says:. October 27, at PM. Sachin Chavan says:. October 30, at PM. The control of microbial growth -- Terminology of microbial control -- Rate of microbial death -- Actions of microbial control agents -- Physical methods of microbial control -- Chemical methods of microbial control -- Microbial characteristics and microbial control -- 8.
Microbial genetics -- Structure and function of the genetic material -- Genotype and phenotype -- DNA and chromosomes -- DNA replication -- RNA and protein synthesis -- The regulation of bacterial gene expression -- Mutation : change in the genetic material -- Mutations -- Mutagens -- Identifying chemical carcinogens -- Genetic transfer and recombination in bacteria -- Genes and evolution -- 9. A survey of the microbial world -- Classification of microorganisms -- Study of phylogenetic relationships -- Classification of organisms -- Classification of prokaryotes -- Classification of eukaryotes -- Classification of viruses -- The prokaryotes : domains bacteria and archaea -- The prokaryotic groups -- Domain bacteria -- The proteobacteria -- The gram-positive bacteria -- Firmicutes -- Actinobacteria -- The nonproteobacteria gram-negative bacteria -- Cyanobacteria -- Chlamydiae -- Planctomycetes -- Bacteroidetes -- Fusobacteria -- Domain archaea -- Microbial diversity -- The eukaryotes : fungi, algae, protozoa, and helminths -- Lichens -- Slime molds -- Platyhelminths -- Nematodes -- Arthropods as vectors -- Viruses, viroids, and prions -- General characteristics of viruses -- Viral structure -- Taxonomy of viruses -- Isolation, cultivation, and identification of viruses -- Bacteriophages -- Viral multiplication -- Viruses and cancer -- DNA oncogenic viruses -- RNA oncogenic viruses -- Latent viral infections -- Persistent viral infections -- Prions -- Plant viruses and viroids pt.
Interaction between microbe and host -- Principles of disease and epidemiology -- Pathology, infection, and disease -- Etiology of infectious diseases -- Koch's postulates -- Classifying infectious diseases -- Patterns of disease -- Spread of infection -- Nosocomial hospital-acquired infections -- Emerging infectious diseases -- Epidemiology -- The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC -- Microbial mechanisms of pathogenicity -- Pathogenic properties of fungi, protozoa, helminths, and algae -- Innate immunity : nonspecific defenses of the host -- Normal microbiota and immunity -- The lymphatic system -- Phagocytes -- Inflammation -- Vasodilation -- Phagocyte migration and phagocytosis -- Fever -- Antimicrobial substances -- Interferons -- Iron-binding proteins -- Peptides -- Adaptive immunity : specific defenses of the host -- Humoral immunity -- Cellular immunity -- Antigens and antibodies -- B cells and humoral immunity -- Diversity of antibodies -- Antigen-antibody binding -- T cells and cellular immunity -- Antigen-presenting cells -- APCs -- Dendritic cells -- Macrophages -- Extracellular killing by the immune system -- Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity -- Cytokines -- Practical applications of immunology -- Vaccines -- Adjuvants -- Safety of vaccines -- Immunologic-based diagnostic tests -- Monoclonal antibodies -- Precipitation reactions -- Agglutination reactions -- Neutralization reactions -- Complement-fixation reactions -- Fluorescent-antibody techniques -- Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ELISA -- Immunoblotting -- Antimicrobial drugs -- History of chemotherapy -- Spectrum of antimicrobial activity -- Action of antimicrobial drugs -- Antibacterial antibiotics -- Antimycobacterial antibiotics -- Antifungal drugs -- Antiviral drugs -- Antiprotozoan and antihelminthic drugs -- Tests to guide chemotherapy -- Resistance to antimicrobial drugs -- Antibiotic safety -- Effects of combinations of drugs -- Future of chemotherapeutic agents pt.
Microorganisms and human disease -- Microbial diseases of the skin and eyes -- Structure and function of the skin -- Normal microbiota of the skin -- Bacterial diseases of the skin -- Viral diseases of the skin -- Fungal diseases of the skin -- Parasitic infestation of the skin -- Inflammation of the eye membranes : conjunctivitis -- Bacterial diseases of the eye -- Microbial diseases of the nervous system -- Structure and function of the nervous system -- Bacterial diseases of the nervous system -- Bacterial meningitis -- Tetanus -- Botulism -- Leprosy -- Viral diseases of the nervous system -- Poliomyelitis -- Rabies -- Arboviral encephalitis -- Fungal disease of the nervous system -- Cryptococcosis -- Protozoan diseases of the nervous system -- African trypanosomiasis -- Amebic meningoencephalitis Nervous system diseases caused by prions -- bovine spongiform encephalopathy and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease -- Chronic fatigue syndrome -- Microbial diseases of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems -- Structure and function of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems -- Bacterial diseases of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems -- Sepsis and septic shock -- Rheumatic fever -- Tularemia -- Undulant fever -- Anthrax -- Gangrene -- Viral diseases -- Burkitt's lymphoma -- Infectious mononucleosis -- Epstein-Barr virus -- Cytomegalovirus infections -- Chikungunya fever -- Viral hemorrhagic fevers -- Protozoan disease -- Chagas' disease American trypanosomiasis -- Toxoplasmosis -- Malaria -- Leishmaniasis -- Babesiosis -- Helminthic diseases -- Schistosomiasis -- Swimmer's itch --
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