Part of a larger website looking at the impact of the soil microbial community. The guidelines are specific to California and cover insect and disease management, but can be useful in a number of situations. Vegetable diseases caused by soilborne pathogens. Hornby, D. Diseases caused by soilborne pathogens. In The Epidemiology of Plant Diseases pp.
Springer, Dordrecht. Strange, Richard N. Sherf, A. Vegetable Diseases and Their Control. Wiley, New York, pp. You, Ming P. Mills, Katherine E. Subbarao, K. Hubbard, and K.
Hao, Jianjun, Krishna V. Subbarao, and Steven T. Baysal, Fulya, et al. Hebbar, K. Nelson, Rebecca, et al. Abawi, G. Bailey, K. Suppressing soil-borne diseases with residue management and organic amendments. Nevertheless, the increase in antibiotic resistance has led to a burst of research to discover new antibiotics. Not only is the soil a source of antibiotic resistance, but it is also a source of natural antibiotics.
Soil organisms often increase production of antibiotic-like compounds during times of stress Swiecilo et al. Many of the bacteria and actinomycetes found in soil naturally secrete compounds to ward off other bacteria and actinomycetes to give them a survival advantage in the competitive soil environment.
However, it is difficult to isolate and grow these organisms in the laboratory environment, which hampers the ability of scientists to discover new antibiotics quickly. The recent discovery of Teixobactin using new culture isolation methods for soil organisms Ling et al.
These studies have revealed that urban soils are very heterogeneous and strongly affected by anthropogenic activities, which supports the suggestion by some soil scientists that soil should now be considered a human—natural body rather than just a natural body Richter et al. The anthropogenic effects that make urban soils so heterogeneous can also introduce a number of contaminants that may have adverse effects on human health.
There has also been a growing urban garden movement in recent years Philpott et al. Therefore, connections between urban soils and human health will be likely to be a growing area of research in the near future. The concept of soil security has been advanced recently in an effort to put policies concerning soil on to a similar level as those focused on food and water security Koch et al. The description of soil security provided by Koch et al. There are definite ties between the concepts Brevik et al.
McBratney et al. There are also interconnections between many of the dimensions. Another example is how people connect dimension 4 with soil affects how a given society tends to treat or manage their soil, which affects its condition dimension 2.
Codification dimension 5 can also affect soil condition dimension 2 through its effect on management choices by land managers.
Therefore, the concept of soil security provides a platform that can be used to explore links between soil and human health in a transdisciplinary way, combining and merging aspects of the physical and biological sciences with those of the social and medical sciences.
Examples of ways that the dimensions of soil security link to human health. Some of the dimensions are interconnected. The examples are based on Brevik et al. Dimension 4, connectivity, provides an excellent example of a potential transdisciplinary approach highlighted by the concept of soil security.
Societies tend to take care of things that matter to them and to neglect things that do not; the connectivity dimension includes making connections between the soil that supports society and items that matter to them McBratney et al. In this respect, the concept of terroir may be particularly useful. Originally terroir established a connection between the soil that produces a given wine and wine connoisseurs, but more recently terroir has been expanded to include many other food products Vaudour et al.
Capehart, Establishing connections between people and soil through products that they value, such as favourite foods, might create greater concern for the soil resource, ultimately leading to better treatment and management of our soils and through that improved human health Karltun et al.
For a more in-depth discussion of links between soil security and human health see Brevik et al. Research into all of the above areas and those discussed more fully in the literature needs to continue to understand fully the effect of soil on human health. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary studies will be needed in the future because narrowly focused research will be inadequate to address many of the outstanding issues that still need to be understood.
Many disciplines including soil science, agronomy, geology, geography cultural and physical , biology, microbiology, ecology, public health and medicine amongst others will need to be involved in these collaborative studies. In addition, the field of soil and human health needs more people within scientific societies and political establishments to convey the importance of and to secure funding for these studies.
This special section seeks to help achieve these goals by bringing together specialists from different fields to present original research on topics important to the study of the soil and human health connection. Steffan and E. Steffan and L. The authors thank the editors and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions that improved the final manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Eur J Soil Sci. Author manuscript; available in PMC Jan 1.
Steffan , a, b E. Brevik , a L. Burgess , a and A. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author: E. Copyright notice. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Eur J Soil Sci. See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract Soil has a considerable effect on human health, whether those effects are positive or negative, direct or indirect.
Keywords: elemental toxicity, xenobiotic organic chemicals, essential nutrients, human pathogens, urban soil, antibiotic resistance. Introduction Soil has a profound effect on the health and well-being of humans. Routes of exposure There are three common ways that humans are exposed to soil materials: i ingestion, ii respiration and iii skin absorption or penetration Brevik, Element toxicity There are many ways that soil can adversely affect human health.
Lead Lead is probably the single largest soil contaminant worldwide because it has been widely introduced into soil from anthropogenic sources such as leaded petrol gasoline , lead-based paint, lead mining and smelting, and other industrial activities.
Arsenic In addition to lead, arsenic poisoning remains a concern over large parts of the world. Cadmium Cadmium contamination can be caused by industrial activities or by fertilization with sewage sludge or superphosphate Nordberg et al. Nitrate Soil is the primary nitrogen source for plants, and given that nitrogen is required for human health, nitrate is an essential nutrient; however, because of its importance plants can quickly diminish nitrate concentrations in soil.
Mercury Mercury occurs naturally in soil formed from parent materials with a large organic content; mercury has a strong affinity for organic matter. Radionuclides Soil can be contaminated with radioactive elements naturally or through anthropogenic activity. Xenobiotic organic chemicals Xenobiotic organic chemicals are carbon based compounds that are synthesized and therefore unnatural. Open in a separate window.
Figure 1. Essential nutrients There are 14 elements essential for plant growth that come from the soil, and many of these elements are also essential for human health Combs, Table 2 Examples of important sources of elements essential to human life, it is important to note that this table does not give a complete list of elements essential to human health Table based on Combs, ; Fraga, ; Shegefti et al.
Element Important Sources Ca Kale, collards, mustard greens, broccoli, dairy products Cl Dairy products, meats, eggs Co Fish, oysters, eggs, milk, green vegetables, cereals, nuts Cu Beans, peas, lentils, whole grains, nuts, peanuts, mushrooms, chocolate, organ meats, oysters, dark chocolate Fe Meats, especially red meat, cereals, legume seeds, fruits, vegetables, dairy I Vegetables, cereals, fruit K Fruits, cereals, vegetables, beans, peas, lentils, dairy products, meats Mg Seeds, nuts, beans, peas, lentils, whole grains, dark green vegetables Mn Whole grains, beans, peas, lentils, nuts, tea Mo Beans, peas, lentils, dark green leafy vegetables, organ meats Na Dairy products, meats, eggs P Nuts, beans, peas, lentils, grains, meats, eggs, dairy products Se Grain products, nuts, garlic, broccoli if grown on high-Se soil , red meats, seafood Zn Nuts, whole grains, beans, peas, lentils, red meats, organ meats, poultry, sea food, dairy.
Iodine Iodine deficiency has been identified as the single most preventable cause of brain damage world-wide by the World Health Organization WHO, a. Iron Iron deficiency causes anaemia because it is an essential component of haemoglobin.
Selenium Selenium is an essential micronutrient for humans because it has critical roles in thyroid function and immunity Fairweather-Tait et al , Zinc Zinc is a critical component of several enzymes, in cellular growth and in tissues that have a rapid differentiation and turnover, such as in the gastrointestinal tract and immune system WHO, Human pathogens In addition to soil affecting the nutrient quality of foodstuffs and exposing humans to contaminants, it is also a vast heterogeneous habitat for millions of macroscopic and billions of microscopic organisms.
Coccidioidomycosis Coccidioidomycosis, also called Valley Fever Figure 2 , is caused by the fungus Coccidioides spp. Figure 2.
Antibiotic resistance and antibiotics Antibiotic resistance by definition occurs when an antibiotic no longer effectively controls or kills bacterial growth an increase in the minimum inhibitory concentration ; thus the bacteria are said to be resistant to the antibiotic and are difficult or impossible to treat.
Soil security The concept of soil security has been advanced recently in an effort to put policies concerning soil on to a similar level as those focused on food and water security Koch et al. Table 3 Examples of ways that the dimensions of soil security link to human health. Conclusions Research into all of the above areas and those discussed more fully in the literature needs to continue to understand fully the effect of soil on human health.
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